The translation theory by Peter Newmark * Peter Newmark 的翻譯理論

Peter Newmark, one of the influential scholars who studied translation theory, is introduced in the book Translation Studies - Theories and Applications which was mentioned in my previous article. He was born in 1916 in Brno, which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and later he became a British citizen. He taught translation at the University of Surrey and wrote several books and articles on translation, such as Approaches to Translation and A Textbook on Translation.

Peter Newmark 是研究翻譯理論的有影響力的學者之一，在我上一篇文章提到的《翻譯研究—理論與應用》一書中有介紹他。他於 1916 年出生於布爾諾，當時布爾諾是奧匈帝國的一部分，後來他成為英國公民。他在薩里大學教授翻譯，並撰寫了多本有關翻譯的書籍和文章，例如《Approaches to Translation》和《A Textbook on Translation.》。

Different from Venuti, Newmark consider translation as the process of transferring the meaning of a text from one language to another. It is a complex and creative activity that involves understanding the context, culture, and purpose of the original text and producing a text that is equivalent in effect and quality in the target language.

與 Venuti 不同，Newmark 認為翻譯是把文本的意義從一種語言轉移到另一種語言的過程。這是一項複雜且富有創造性的活動，涉及理解原文的背景、文化和目的，並產生與目標語言具有同等效果和品質的文本。

Newmark noticed that translation can be done for different purposes, such as communication, education, entertainment, or research, and proposed two main methods of translation: semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on the meaning and form of the source text and tries to preserve the author’s intention and style. It is suitable for expressive, informative, and technical texts that require accuracy and fidelity. Communicative translation focuses on the effect and function of the target text and tries to produce a text that is natural and clear for the target readers. It is suitable for vocative, persuasive, and operative texts that require adaptation and cultural transfer.

Newmark 注意到翻譯可以用於不同的目的，例如交流、教育、娛樂或研究，並提出了兩種主要的翻譯方法：語意翻譯和交際翻譯。語意翻譯著重於原文的意義和形式，並盡力保留作者的意圖和風格。它適用於需要準確性和保真度的表達性、資訊性和技術文本。溝通翻譯著重於目標文本的效果和功能，力求提供目標讀者自然、清晰的文本。 它適用於需要改編和文化遷移的呼喚性、說服性和操作性文本。

He developed a text typology based on the language function and the text category by dividing texts into five types: expressive, informative, vocative, operative, and phatic. Each type of text has a different degree of emphasis on the content, the form, and the effect. Newmark suggested that different types of texts require different translation methods and strategies.

透過將文本分為五種類型：表達型、資訊型、號召型、操作型和修辭型，建立了基於語言功能和文本類別的文本類型學。每種類型的文字在內容、形式和效果上都有不同的重點。Newmark 認為不同類型的文本需要不同的翻譯方法和策略。

Newmark’s translation theory and text typology have been widely applied and discussed in the translation field, and have been the basic skill that translators must achieve. His work has contributed to the development of translation as a discipline and a profession. He died in 2011 at the age of 95.

Newmark 的翻譯理論和文本類型學在翻譯領域中得到了廣泛的應用和討論。 他的工作為翻譯作為一門學科和一項職業的發展做出了貢獻。他於 2011 年去世，享年 95 歲。

Translation strategies by Lawrence * Lawrence Venuti 的翻譯策略

When I was still studying for my bachelor's degree in Chinese-English translation after my office work, all our class was always requested to read the book Introduction to Translation Studies - Theory and Application (Second Edition). What impressed me deeply about this book was the theory of domestication and foreignization proposed by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti.

當我還在工餘為中英翻譯學士學位拼命時，我們班總是被要求閱讀《Introduction to Translation Studies - Theory and Application》（第二版）這本書。該書讓我印象深刻的是美國翻譯理論家 Lawrence Venuti 提出的歸化與異化理論。

Domestication refers to producing a fluent and transparent translation that makes it easy and familiar for the target language readers. It often involves deleting or replacing culturally specific markers from the source text, and adding explanations or allusions to the target culture, and adapting the style and tone from the original into the target conventions. Foreignization, on the other hand, seeks to preserve the foreignness of the original text and make it visible and noticeable for the target readers. It often involves retaining or highlighting culturally specific markers, leaving gaps or ambiguities for the readers to fill in, and breaking the target conventions by using unusual or exotic words and structures.

歸化是指產生流暢、透明的翻譯，讓目標語言的讀者易於理解和熟悉。它通常涉及從源文本中刪除或替換文化特定的標記，添加對目標文化的解釋或典故，以及將原文的風格和語氣調整為目標語的約定俗成。另一方面，異化力求保留原文的異國情調，使其對目標讀者可見、引人注目。它通常涉及保留或突出文化的特定標記，留下空白或歧義供讀者填補，以及透過使用不尋常或帶有異國情調的單字和結構來打破目標的約定俗成。

Both theories of translation (translation strategies) have been debated for a long time in the realm of translation on the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture or retain the foreignness of the source culture. Both strategies are not only a linguistic choice, but also cultural and political. Depending on the purpose, context, and audience of the translation, both strategies have their advantages and disadvantages. Domestication can make the translation more accessible and acceptable for the target readers, but it may erase the cultural differences and diversity of the original text and impose the target values and norms on it. Foreignization can make the translation more faithful and respectful to the original text and its culture, but it can also create difficulties and alienation for the target readers and marginalize the translation in the target market. Therefore, translators need to balance the two strategies and consider the ethical and practical implications of their choices.

這兩種翻譯理論（翻譯策略）在翻譯領域長期以來一直是爭論的焦點，即譯者在多大程度上使譯文符合目標文化或保留源語文化的異國情調。這兩種策略不僅是語言上的選擇，也是文化和政治選擇。根據翻譯的目的、上下文和受眾，這兩種策略都有其優點和缺點。歸化可以使譯文更容易為目標讀者所接受和接受，但它可能會消除原文的文化差異和多樣性，並將目標語的價值和規範強加給原文。異化可以使譯文更加忠實和尊重原文及其文化，但也會為目標讀者帶來困難和疏遠，使譯文在目標市場中被邊緣化。因此，譯者需要平衡這兩種策略，並考慮其選擇的倫理和實際影響。

Venuti considered that, especially when translati
ng into the languages of powerful countries, Domestication is an act of fawning or cultural bullying as it erases the cultural differences and diversity of the original text. From his viewpoint, the ethical choice for a translator should be Foreignization, as the translation process is mediated by the diverse cultural values that circulate in the target language and refracts the source language cultural norms.

Venuti 認為，尤其是在翻譯成強國語言時，歸
是一種奉承或文化霸凌行為，因為它抹去了原文的文化差異和多樣性。在他看來，譯者的道德選擇應該是異化，因為翻譯過程是由目標語言中傳播的多元文化價值所介導的，並折射了源語言的文化規範。

However, I have promoted in my graduation project that Domestication could be one of the translation strategies friendly to the target language readers. In the communication environment today that emphasizes globalization and high efficiency, Domestication is better than Foreignization for reducing incomprehensible translations caused by cultural differences.

然而，我在我的畢業專題中提出，歸化可以成為對目標語言讀者友好的翻譯策略之一。在當今強調全球化和高效率的溝通環境下，歸化比異化更能減少因文化差異而導致的難以理解的翻譯。

Burning the first bunch of incense 上頭炷香

The coming Lunar New Year will start on February 10, 2024. People to go to one or more monasteries or temples and burn their first bunch of incense for the new year. So, what is the meaning of "burning the first bunch of incense" during the Lunar New Year?
即將到來的農曆新年將從2024年2月10日開始。人們會去一個或多個寺廟或寺廟燒新年的第一束香。那麼，過年「上頭炷香」是什麼意思？

Many Chinese people believe that they must strive to be the first one to put their own bunch of incense on the incense burner of the monasteries or temples in the early morning of the first day of the Lunar New Year, so that they may show their sincerity. Some other people believe that their sincerity will be shown as long as their incense can be placed on the "first turn of the burner" (Before the first time the incense burner is filled up and needs to be cleaned).
許多中國人認為，在大年初一的清晨，必須爭做第一個把自己的一束香放在寺院香爐上的人，這樣才能表達自己的誠意。還有一些人認為，只要能把香放在「第一爐」上（在香爐第一次裝滿並需要清洗之前），就表明了自己的誠意。

In fact, the believers (especial those who have not converted to the religion or studied the doctrine) of Buddhism or Taoism are told every year that "burning the first bunch of incense" refers only to burning their own first bunch of incense with sincerity during the Lunar New Year, and they don’t have to rush to participate in activities in order to avoid the danger of the mixing of crowds and incense.
事實上，佛教或道教的信徒（特別是沒有皈依宗教、沒有學過教義的人）每年都會被告知，「上頭炷香」只是指在農曆新年期間真誠地燒自己的第一柱香，他們不必急於參加活動，以避免人群和香火混合造成的危險。

It is not necessary for me to "burn my first brunch of incense", as I have learned the meaning of "the Incense of the Quintessential Penta-Segmental Dharmic Corpus" from The Altar-Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, I may "burn" my incenses anytime and everywhere without any physical incense or burner.
我沒必要「燒第一香」，因為我從《六祖壇經》中學到了“五分法身香”的意思，隨時都可以在沒有任何實體的香與香爐下「燒」香。

The most important thing to showing one's sincerity to deities and Buddhas is mind, but not the time and location.
向神佛表達誠意，最重要的是心，而不是時間與地點。

A joyful week 喜樂的一周

There are two major celebrations in the coming week: December 25 is Christmas Day, when Christians celebrate the birthday of Jesus; and the other hand, November 17 on the lunar calendar, which corresponds to December 29 this year, is the birthday of Amitabha (one of the Buddhas in Mahayana Buddhism). In this joyful week, let’s find brightness and joy in our minds by following the guidance of these two saints!

未來一週有兩個重要的慶祝活動：12月25日是基督徒慶祝耶穌的生日的聖誕節；另外，農曆11月17日，對應今年的12月29日，是阿彌陀佛（大乘佛教諸佛之一）的誕辰。在這喜樂的一週裡，讓我們跟隨兩位聖人的指引，在心中找到光明和喜樂！

Taboo about death 對死亡的忌諱

Some people regard topics related to death as taboo and try to avoid talking about them. I don’t advocate joking about these topics, but it would be unwise if these topics could not be discussed rationally, since they involve a necessary process in life.
有些人將與死亡有關的話題視為禁忌，並試圖避免談論它們。我不提倡拿這些話題開玩笑，但如果不能理性地討論這些話題，那就是不明智的，因為它們涉及到人生的一個必然過程。

Where do people go after death? Materialists believe that as soon as a person dies, there will be nothing left.  Therefore, some people indulge in pleasure, others kill, steal, commit adultery, and do all kinds of evil.  This view of life is really a superficial and terribly evil view.
人死後會去哪裡？唯物論者認為，人死後就什麼都沒有了。因此，有的人沉溺於享樂，有的人則殺生、偷竊、邪淫，作種種惡事。這種人生觀實在是一種膚淺的、極度邪惡的觀點。

Catholicism and Christianity believe that after death, people will be judged by God, and the deceased will be arranged to go to heaven or hell according to their merits and demerits in life.
天主教和基督教認為，人死後會受到上帝的審判，根據生前的功過來安排死者上天堂或地獄。

Taoism believes that people with great meritorious deeds are directly awarded heavenly duties by the Emperor of Heaven after death. The others, after being judged by King Yama, will have different fates according to their merits and demerits, such as being reborn as a human or an animal, being thrown into a mountain of knives or a pan with hot oil, or subjected to other punishments inside hell.
道教認為，有大功德的人死後，由天帝直接授予天職。其他人經過閻羅王的審判後，會根據功過不同而有不同的命運，如投生為人或畜生，被扔進刀山或熱油鍋裡，或遭受其他在地獄中的懲罰。

In the view of Buddhism, when we are dead, we will be judged by our own karma. Those who are able to achieve their enlightenment before death are certainly reborn in the Pure Land and will no longer be trapped by reincarnation. Those who are not yet enlightened but have become accustomed to reciting any one of the Buddhas' name, or to thinking and acting according to scriptures, may temporarily avoid being trapped by reincarnation after their death under the lead and help of others who have been enlightened and continue their practice in the Pure Land. And those who are unable to escape from reincarnation, based on the good and bad karma they have created throughout their lives, also have the opportunity to be temporarily reincarnated in an environment with less painful consequences, until their new life is end and is judged by their karma again.
從佛教的觀點來看，死後我們會受到自己業力的審判。能在臨終前開悟的人，當然會往生淨土，不會被輪迴所束縛。那些尚未開悟，但已習慣念佛名號，或依經文來思考與行事的人，可在其他已經開悟的人的引導和幫助下，暫時避免輪迴之苦，死後在淨土繼續修行。而那些無法擺脫輪迴的人，根據一生所造的善惡業力，也有機會暫時轉生到一個不那麼痛苦後果的環境中，直到新的轉世結束再受業力的審判。

According to this concept, whatever we may escape from reincarnation or not, our life after our death can be optimized. It can be done if we may wake up from the nightmare or taboo of death, get rid of the impermanence and pain of present life with the help of karma, and create infinite vitality for our lives.
根據這個概念，無論我們能否逃脫輪迴，我們死後的生活都可以優化。如果我們能從死亡的惡夢或禁忌中醒來，借助業力擺脫今生的無常和痛苦，為生命創造無限的生機，就可以做到。

Many cases of near-death experiences or past life memories have been scientifically confirmed. Although these proofs do not reveal completely the possibilities of life after death, just like religions did, these should clearly show that death is only the end of present life, but not the end of all, as it is the path connected to life after death.
許多瀕死體驗或前世記憶的案例都已被科學證實。 雖然這些證據並沒有像宗教那樣完全揭示死後生命的可能性，但這些應該清楚地表明，死亡只是今生的終結，而不是一切的終結，因為它是連接死後生命的道路。 

We will prepare for certain cases, such as various assessments and reports that need to be carried out before the project starts, making savings plans for retirement, consulting insurance advisors for risks management on property or health... Should we need to do something for our life after death?  Should we explore these topics rationally? Or, should we still avoid talking about them?
我們會針對某些情況做準備，例如專案開始前需要進行的各種評估和報告、制定退休儲蓄計劃、諮詢保險顧問安排財產或健康風險管理……我們是否需要做一些事情我們死後的生活？我們應該理性地探討這些主題嗎？或者，我們仍然應該避免談論它們嗎？